1 Introduction

Mosquitoes, belonging to the family Culicidae, are ubiquitous insects found in nearly every region of the world, except Antarctica. They undergo a holometabolous life cycle, which includes four distinct stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adult. This life cycle is completed in two different environments: aquatic for the egg, larval, and pupal stages, and terrestrial for the adult stage (Abd, 2020). The larvae, commonly known as wigglers, pass through four instars, each resembling the previous one but increasing in size (Foster and Walker, 2002). The adult mosquitoes, particularly females, are known vectors for various pathogens, making them significant in public health contexts (Foster and Walker, 2002; Abd, 2020).

Understanding the life cycle dynamics of mosquitoes is crucial for effective vector control and disease management. Each life stage presents unique vulnerabilities and opportunities for intervention. For instance, the genetic diversity and connectivity between mosquito populations can vary significantly between life stages, which has implications for targeted management strategies (Reed et al., 2022). Additionally, the longevity and survival rates of the aquatic stages directly influence the production of adult mosquitoes, thereby affecting disease transmission intensity (Bayoh et al., 2004). Knowledge of these dynamics can inform the development of predictive models and early warning systems for mosquito-borne diseases (Bayoh et al., 2004; Grech et al., 2015).

Environmental factors such as temperature, water quality, and habitat characteristics play a significant role in the development and survival of mosquitoes. Temperature, for example, affects the duration of larval and pupal stages, with optimal survival temperatures differing from those that promote the quickest development (Bayoh et al., 2004; Grech et al., 2015). Water's physicochemical properties, including pH, salinity, and dissolved oxygen, also influence mosquito assemblages and the abundance of specific species like Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus (Ceretti-Junior and Marrelli, 2020; David et al., 2021). Furthermore, the presence of organic matter and container volume in larval habitats can impact the density and body size of emerging adults, which are critical factors in disease transmission risk (David et al., 2021; Bastos et al., 2022).

This study is to synthesize current knowledge on the life cycle dynamics of mosquitoes under varied environmental conditions. By examining how different environmental factors influence each stage of the mosquito life cycle, this study seeks to provide a comprehensive understanding that can aid in the development of more effective vector control strategies. This study will cover a range of mosquito species, focusing on those of significant public health importance, and will integrate findings from genetic, ecological, and physiological studies to offer a holistic view of mosquito life cycle dynamics.

2 Mosquito Life Cycle Stages

2.1 Egg

2.1.1 Environmental conditions for egg laying

The mosquito life cycle includes four distinct stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adult (Figure 1) (Okuneye et al., 2019). This life cycle is completed in two different environments, and the egg stage is completed in an aquatic environment. The environmental conditions for egg laying are crucial for the successful reproduction of mosquitoes. Female Aedes aegypti mosquitoes, for instance, prefer to lay their eggs in freshwater environments, as high salinity can be lethal to their offspring (Matthews et al., 2018). The presence of water is a significant factor, and mosquitoes use both volatile cues to locate water from a distance and direct contact to evaluate its suitability for egg-laying (Matthews et al., 2018). Additionally, the pH of the water can influence egg-laying behavior, with acidic conditions (pH = 4) proving unsuitable for the development of larvae (Torres et al., 2022).

2.1.2 Factors influencing egg viability

Egg viability is influenced by several environmental factors, including temperature and water quality. For example, the hatching rate of Aedes albopictus eggs is higher under environmental temperature variations compared to constant temperatures, suggesting that temperature fluctuations may stimulate eclosion (Monteiro et al., 2007). Furthermore, the pH of the water also plays a role, with a positive correlation observed between pH levels and the number of mosquito larvae, indicating that more neutral pH levels are favorable for egg viability (Putri et al., 2023).

2.2 Larva

2.2.1 Water quality and temperature

Water quality and temperature are critical for the development of mosquito larvae. Studies have shown that the survival and development rates of larvae are significantly affected by temperature. For instance, Anopheles gambiae larvae have optimal survival rates at temperatures between 16°C and 34°C, with extreme temperatures leading to higher mortality rates (Bayoh and Lindsay, 2004). Additionally, water quality factors such as pH and salinity can impact larval development. Aedes aegypti larvae, for example, show 100% lethality at an acidic pH of 4, with optimal development occurring at a pH of 6 (Torres et al., 2022).

2.2.2 Nutrient availability

Nutrient availability is another crucial factor influencing larval development. The quantity and quality of food available to larvae can affect their growth and survival rates. In a study on Anopheles stephensi, larvae reared on a reduced food diet showed lower survival rates and smaller adult sizes compared to those reared on a standard diet (Moller-Jacobs et al., 2014). Similarly, the density of larvae and the availability of food can influence the timing of pupation and the overall development period.

2.3 Pupa

2.3.1 Environmental triggers for pupation

Environmental factors such as temperature, food availability, and larval density can trigger pupation in mosquitoes. For instance, a study on Florida mosquitoes found that lower food quantities, higher larval densities, and increased salinity delayed the onset of pupation and prolonged the pupal stage. Additionally, temperature plays a significant role, with higher temperatures accelerating the development from larva to pupa (Agyekum et al., 2021).

2.3.2 Survival rates under different conditions

Survival rates of pupae are influenced by environmental conditions, particularly temperature. Anopheles gambiae pupae have been shown to have the highest survival rates at moderate temperatures, with extreme temperatures leading to increased mortality (Bayoh and Lindsay, 2004). Furthermore, the synchronization of pupal ecdysis can be enhanced by manipulating environmental factors such as light cycles, food availability, and larval density.

2.4 Adult

2.4.1 Environmental influences on emergence

The emergence of adult mosquitoes is influenced by the environmental conditions experienced during the larval and pupal stages. Temperature, in particular, has a significant impact on the timing and success of adult emergence. For example, higher temperatures during the larval stages result in smaller adults and can affect the timing of egg laying and hatching in adult females (Christiansen-Jucht et al., 2015). Additionally, the quality of the larval habitat, including nutrient availability and water quality, can influence the size and reproductive success of emerging adults (Moller-Jacobs et al., 2014).

2.4.2 Lifespan and reproductive factors

The lifespan and reproductive success of adult mosquitoes are shaped by the environmental conditions experienced during their immature stages. Higher rearing temperatures have been shown to decrease the longevity, body size, and fecundity of adult Anopheles mosquitoes (Agyekum et al., 2021). Moreover, the larval diet can affect adult survival and reproductive traits, with adults reared on a reduced food diet showing lower reproductive success and shorter lifespans (Moller-Jacobs et al., 2014). These findings highlight the importance of considering environmental variation at all life stages to better understand mosquito population dynamics and disease transmission potential.

3 Environmental Factors Affecting Mosquito Life Cycles

3.1 Temperature

3.1.1 Effects on development rates

Temperature is a critical factor influencing the development rates of mosquitoes. Studies have shown that higher temperatures can accelerate the development of mosquito larvae, reducing the time required for them to reach adulthood. For instance, Anopheles mosquitoes exhibit faster development rates at higher temperatures, although this can also lead to smaller adult sizes and reduced survival rates (Ewing et al., 2016; Agyekum et al., 2021). Similarly, Aedes albopictus larvae develop more quickly at elevated temperatures, but their survival rates decrease significantly at temperatures around 35°C (Monteiro et al., 2007). The development period of Culex mosquitoes also shortens with increasing temperatures, particularly below 24°C, but higher temperatures can increase mortality rates (Ciota et al., 2014).

3.1.2 Geographic variations

Geographic variations play a significant role in how temperature affects mosquito populations. Different species and even populations within the same species can exhibit varying sensitivities to temperature changes. For example, Anopheles arabiensis shows greater tolerance to higher temperatures compared to An. funestus and An. quadriannulatus, which affects their distribution and survival in different regions (Agyekum et al., 2021). Additionally, Culex pipiens and Cx. quinquefasciatus, despite their distinct geographic ranges, do not show significant species-specific adaptations to temperature, indicating that local environmental conditions heavily influence their life cycles (Ciota et al., 2014).

3.2 Humidity

3.2.1 Impact on survival and activity

Humidity significantly impacts mosquito survival and activity. High humidity levels are generally favorable for mosquito survival, as they reduce desiccation risk. Conversely, low humidity can lead to increased mortality rates. For instance, the survival of Aedes aegypti and Ae. albopictus is closely linked to humidity levels, with higher humidity promoting longer lifespans and increased activity (Reinhold et al., 2018). The activity patterns of mosquitoes, including host-seeking behavior, are also influenced by humidity, which can affect disease transmission dynamics (Reinhold et al., 2018).

3.2.2 Seasonal variations

Seasonal variations in humidity can lead to fluctuations in mosquito populations. During the wet season, increased humidity and water availability create optimal breeding conditions, leading to population surges. Conversely, the dry season can reduce mosquito activity and survival due to lower humidity levels. These seasonal changes are crucial for understanding and predicting mosquito population dynamics and the associated risks of disease outbreaks (Schaeffer et al., 2008).

3.3 Water quality

3.3.1 Importance of water sources

Water quality is essential for mosquito breeding, as larvae develop in aquatic environments. The availability and quality of water sources can significantly influence mosquito populations. Clean, stagnant water is ideal for mosquito breeding, while polluted or contaminated water can hinder larval development and survival. For example, the presence of organic matter and nutrients in water can enhance larval growth, whereas pollutants and toxins can be detrimental (Moller-Jacobs et al., 2014).

3.3.2 Contaminants and their effects

Contaminants in water sources can have various effects on mosquito larvae. Pollutants such as heavy metals, pesticides, and other chemicals can reduce larval survival rates and affect development. Studies have shown that larvae exposed to contaminated water exhibit lower survival rates and may develop into weaker adults with reduced reproductive success (Moller-Jacobs et al., 2014). Understanding the impact of water quality on mosquito life cycles is crucial for effective vector control strategies.

3.4 Habitat availability

3.4.1 Natural vs. artificial habitats

Mosquitoes can breed in both natural and artificial habitats, with each type offering different conditions that affect their life cycles. Natural habitats, such as ponds, marshes, and tree holes, provide stable environments with consistent water quality and temperature. In contrast, artificial habitats, such as discarded containers, tires, and urban water systems, can vary widely in their suitability for mosquito breeding. The adaptability of mosquitoes to these diverse habitats is a key factor in their ability to thrive in various environments (Schaeffer et al., 2008).

3.4.2 Urbanization and habitat fragmentation

Urbanization and habitat fragmentation have significant impacts on mosquito populations. Urban areas often provide numerous artificial breeding sites, leading to increased mosquito abundance and higher risks of disease transmission. Habitat fragmentation can also create isolated populations with varying genetic diversity and adaptability. The interplay between urbanization and mosquito habitat availability is a critical area of study for understanding and managing vector-borne diseases (Schaeffer et al., 2008; Phelan and Rotiberg, 2013).

4 Case Study: Mosquito Life Cycle Dynamics in Varied Environmental Conditions

4.1 Case study 1: tropical environments

4.1.1 Typical mosquito species and their life cycles

In tropical environments, mosquito species such as Aedes africanus and Aedes furcifer are prevalent. These species are known vectors of the yellow fever virus and typically breed in tree holes where water availability is a critical factor for their life cycle stages, including immature and mature eggs, larvae, and adult females (Schaeffer et al., 2008). Another significant species in tropical regions is Anopheles, which transmits malaria. The life cycle of Anopheles mosquitoes involves several stages: gametocytes are ingested during blood-feeding, fertilization occurs in the midgut, and the parasites develop through ookinetes, oocysts, and sporozoites before being transmitted to another host.

4.1.2 Environmental conditions and challenges

Tropical environments are characterized by high temperatures and significant rainfall, which create ideal breeding conditions for mosquitoes. The abundance of water in tree holes and other breeding sites is a primary environmental factor influencing mosquito populations (Schaeffer et al., 2008). However, these conditions also pose challenges, such as the increased risk of disease transmission due to higher mosquito populations. Additionally, the variability in rainfall and temperature can affect the survival and development rates of mosquitoes, impacting their vectorial capacity (Moller-Jacobs et al., 2014). Reinhold et al. (2018) compiled the current knowledge on the effect of environmental temperature on mosquitoes with a focus on their host-seeking behavior and ecology, including dispersion and vector relevance (Figure 2).

4.2 Case study 2: temperate environments

4.2.1 Typical mosquito species and their life cycles

In temperate environments, species such as Aedes vexans and Culex tarsalis are common. These species have life cycles that are highly sensitive to temperature fluctuations. For instance, Aedes vexans and Culex tarsalis populations are influenced by air temperature and surface water availability, which affect their breeding and development stages (Chuang et al., 2012). The life cycle of these mosquitoes includes egg, larval, pupal, and adult stages, with each stage being temperature-dependent (Ewing et al., 2016).

4.2.2 Environmental conditions and challenges

Temperate regions experience significant seasonal variations in temperature, which directly impact mosquito population dynamics. Warmer temperatures can increase mosquito abundance and the risk of disease outbreaks, while colder temperatures can reduce mosquito activity and survival rates (Ewing et al., 2016; Agyekum et al., 2021). The challenge in these environments is predicting and managing mosquito populations as climate change leads to more frequent and extreme temperature fluctuations (Beck-Johnson et al., 2013).

4.3 Case study 3: urban vs. rural environments

4.3.1 Comparative analysis of mosquito populations

Urban environments often have higher mosquito populations due to the availability of artificial breeding sites such as containers, gutters, and discarded tires. In contrast, rural environments provide natural breeding sites like ponds, ditches, and tree holes. Studies have shown that urban mosquitoes, such as Aedes aegypti, are well-adapted to human-made environments and can thrive in close proximity to human populations (Reinhold et al., 2018). Rural mosquitoes, on the other hand, may have more diverse breeding sites but are less concentrated around human habitats (Okuneye et al., 2019).

4.3.2 Impact of human activities on life cycle dynamics

Human activities significantly impact mosquito life cycle dynamics in both urban and rural settings. In urban areas, improper waste management and water storage practices create breeding grounds for mosquitoes, leading to higher population densities and increased disease transmission risks (Reinhold et al., 2018). In rural areas, agricultural practices and deforestation can alter natural habitats, affecting mosquito breeding sites and population dynamics (Ohta and Kaga, 2012). Additionally, the use of insecticides and other control measures can influence mosquito survival and resistance patterns (Agyekum et al., 2021).

5 Adaptation Strategies of Mosquitoes to Environmental Changes

5.1 Genetic adaptations

Mosquitoes exhibit significant genetic adaptations to cope with environmental changes. For instance, the rapid adaptive evolution of diapause programs in Aedes albopictus has been observed, allowing them to synchronize their life cycle with seasonal variations, particularly in response to winter conditions (Batz et al., 2020). Additionally, Aedes aegypti exhibits strong genomic adaptation signals under different climatic conditions, and specific single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) exhibit strong genomic signals of adaptation to different climatic conditions. Bennett et al. (2021), across 128 candidate SNPs, used GDM and GF analysis to visualize the change in frequencies of Aedes aegypti across Panama. GDM analysis presented a smoother turnover in the geographical distribution of putatively adaptive loci than that of putatively neutral loci (Figure 3). In the Anopheles gambiae complex, genetic differentiation between rural and urban populations has been driven by selective pressures such as pollutants and insecticides, highlighting the role of genetic adaptations in thriving in human-dominated environments (Kamdem et al., 2016). Furthermore, chromosomal inversions in Anopheles gambiae have been linked to desiccation resistance, suggesting that these genetic variations confer advantages in arid conditions. Lastly, transcriptome analysis of Culex pipiens complex mosquitoes has revealed significant differences in gene expression and genetic variants, which are associated with their unique life strategies and ecological niches (Kang et al., 2020).

5.2 Behavioral adaptations

Behavioral adaptations are crucial for mosquitoes to evade control measures and exploit new environments. For example, mosquitoes have developed behavioral resistance to insecticides, which includes changes in feeding and resting behaviors to avoid contact with treated surfaces (Carrasco et al., 2019). In Tanzania, malaria vectors such as Anopheles arabiensis and Anopheles funestus have shown increased outdoor resting and a shift in host preference from humans to cattle, as a response to high coverage of long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) (Kreppel et al., 2020). These behavioral changes help mosquitoes to avoid insecticide exposure and maintain their populations. Additionally, the ability of mosquitoes to adjust their life history traits, such as the timing of blood meals and mating behaviors, in response to environmental cues, further exemplifies their behavioral plasticity (Kang et al., 2020). The emergence of behavioral avoidance strategies in response to vector control measures underscores the importance of understanding mosquito behavior in the fight against vector-borne diseases (Kreppel et al., 2020).

5.3 Physiological adaptations

Physiological adaptations enable mosquitoes to survive and reproduce under varying environmental conditions. In West Africa, Anopheles coluzzii populations exhibit distinct physiological responses to desiccation, with variations in protein, triglyceride, and metabolite levels, as well as gene expression related to energy metabolism, which support their survival during dry seasons (Hidalgo et al., 2016). The ability to enter diapause, a state of developmental arrest, allows mosquitoes to withstand unfavorable conditions, such as cold winters, by synchronizing their life cycle with seasonal changes (Batz et al., 2020). Moreover, the presence of chromosomal inversions in Anopheles gambiae has been associated with increased desiccation resistance, indicating that these genetic variations contribute to physiological adaptations for water homeostasis in arid environments (Fouet et al., 2012). The plasticity in transmission strategies of malaria parasites, such as relapses and recrudescences, also highlights the physiological adaptations of mosquitoes to optimize their transmission potential in response to the availability of vectors (Cornet et al., 2014). These physiological mechanisms are critical for the persistence and spread of mosquito populations in diverse ecological settings.

6 Impact of Climate Change on Mosquito Life Cycles

6.1 Changes in temperature and humidity patterns

Climate change is significantly altering temperature and humidity patterns globally, which in turn affects mosquito life cycles. Mosquitoes, being ectothermic, are highly sensitive to temperature changes. Increased temperatures can accelerate mosquito development, increase biting frequency, and enhance the rate of pathogen development within mosquitoes (Ramasamy and Surendran, 2012; Afrane et al., 2012; Nosrat et al., 2021). For instance, studies have shown that higher ambient temperatures can lead to more frequent blood feeds and faster development of ingested pathogens, thereby increasing the transmission potential of diseases such as malaria, dengue, and chikungunya (Ramasamy and Surendran, 2012; Ryan et al., 2017). Additionally, changes in humidity and rainfall patterns can create more breeding sites, further boosting mosquito populations (Nosrat et al., 2021; Tahir et al., 2023).

6.2 Altered distribution of mosquito species

Climate change is also causing shifts in the geographical distribution of mosquito species. As temperatures rise, mosquito species that were previously confined to tropical and subtropical regions are now being found in temperate zones and higher altitudes (Afrane et al., 2012; Ryan et al., 2017; Andriamifidy et al., 2019). For example, the highlands of Africa, which traditionally had low ambient temperatures restricting mosquito distribution, are now experiencing increased temperatures that facilitate the spread of Anopheles mosquitoes, vectors of malaria and other diseases (Afrane et al., 2012). Similarly, the range of Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus is expanding poleward and to higher elevations as they track optimal temperatures for transmission (Erickson et al., 2012; Ryan et al., 2017).

6.3 Implications for disease transmission

The changes in mosquito life cycles and distribution due to climate change have profound implications for disease transmission. Increased mosquito populations and expanded geographical ranges mean that more people are at risk of mosquito-borne diseases. For instance, the expansion of saline and brackish water bodies due to rising sea levels can increase the densities of salinity-tolerant mosquitoes, thereby enhancing the transmission of diseases in coastal zones (Ramasamy and Surendran, 2012). Moreover, extreme climate events such as floods and droughts can create favorable conditions for mosquito breeding and increase the risk of outbreaks (Nosrat et al., 2021). The non-linear relationship between climate variables and mosquito abundance suggests that even small changes in temperature and rainfall can lead to significant increases in disease transmission (Ewing et al., 2016; Reinhold et al., 2018; Nosrat et al., 2021).

7 Management and Control Strategies

7.1 Environmental management

7.1.1 Water management practices

Water management practices are crucial in controlling mosquito populations as they target the breeding habitats of mosquitoes. Effective water management includes practices such as draining stagnant water, proper disposal of containers that can collect water, and maintaining clean water bodies to prevent mosquito breeding. These practices reduce the availability of suitable habitats for mosquito larvae, thereby decreasing the overall mosquito population (Christian et al., 2021).

7.1.2 Habitat modification

Habitat modification involves altering the environment to make it less conducive for mosquito breeding. This can include measures such as filling in or draining wetlands, modifying riverbanks, and ensuring proper irrigation practices. By reducing the number of breeding sites, habitat modification can significantly lower mosquito populations. Additionally, manipulating abiotic factors such as temperature and humidity can also impact mosquito bionomics and biological fitness, further aiding in control efforts (Christian et al., 2021).

7.2 Biological control methods

7.2.1 Use of natural predators

Biological control methods leverage natural predators to manage mosquito populations. Various invertebrate predators, such as dragonfly nymphs, backswimmers, and certain fish species, have shown significant efficacy in preying on mosquito larvae. For instance, the backswimmer (Notonectidae) has been identified as a highly effective predator, capable of consuming a substantial number of mosquito larvae daily (Eba et al., 2021). The use of these natural predators can be integrated into broader vector control programs to provide a sustainable and eco-friendly alternative to chemical methods (Riaz et al., 2018; Eba et al., 2021).

7.2.2 Genetic control techniques

Genetic control techniques involve manipulating the genetic makeup of mosquito populations to reduce their ability to reproduce or transmit diseases. Strategies such as the release of genetically modified mosquitoes that carry lethal genes or genes that reduce their fitness are being explored. Homing endonuclease genes (HEGs) are one such approach, which can spread rapidly through a population and potentially lead to population suppression or elimination (Alphey, 2014). These methods offer a species-specific and environmentally friendly alternative to traditional control measures (Alphey, 2014; Alphey and Bonsall, 2014).

7.3 Chemical control methods

7.3.1 Insecticides and larvicides

Chemical control methods primarily involve the use of insecticides and larvicides to target different life stages of mosquitoes. Insecticides are used to kill adult mosquitoes, while larvicides target the larval stages in breeding sites. Despite their effectiveness, the widespread use of these chemicals has led to the development of resistance in mosquito populations, necessitating the exploration of alternative control strategies (Benelli et al., 2016; Barbosa et al., 2018).

7.3.2 Resistance management

Resistance management is critical to maintaining the efficacy of chemical control methods. Strategies to manage resistance include rotating different classes of insecticides, using insecticides in combination with other control methods, and implementing integrated pest management (IPM) approaches. Computational models have been developed to understand the dynamics of resistance development and to optimize the deployment of insecticides to delay or prevent resistance (Barbosa et al., 2018). By carefully managing resistance, the longevity and effectiveness of chemical control methods can be preserved (Barbosa et al., 2018).

8 Future Research Directions

8.1 Identifying knowledge gaps

Despite significant advancements in understanding mosquito life cycle dynamics under varied environmental conditions, several knowledge gaps remain. One critical area is the need for more comprehensive data on the phenotypic and genotypic variation in thermal tolerance within mosquito populations. This information is crucial for predicting how mosquitoes will adapt to climate change and for developing accurate predictive models. Additionally, the role of phenotypic plasticity in mosquito adaptation to changing climates is not well understood and requires further investigation (Couper et al., 2021). Another gap is the lack of integration of diurnal temperature ranges in experimental studies, which could improve our understanding of mosquito ecology and disease transmission, particularly in temperate regions (Andriamifidy et al., 2019). Furthermore, the interaction between climate change and other global processes, such as land-use and socioeconomic changes, is often excluded from analyses, leading to an incomplete understanding of mosquito-borne disease dynamics (Franklinos et al., 2019).

8.2 Emerging technologies for mosquito monitoring and control

Emerging technologies offer promising avenues for improving mosquito monitoring and control. Satellite remote sensing, for instance, has shown potential in predicting mosquito population dynamics by providing more spatially continuous environmental measurements compared to traditional ground-based weather stations. The use of satellite data can enhance the accuracy of models predicting mosquito abundance and improve early warning systems for mosquito-borne diseases (Chuang et al., 2012). Additionally, advancements in system dynamics modeling techniques and remote sensing can provide better insights into mosquito-borne disease mitigation in a changing world (Franklinos et al., 2019). Mechanistic models that incorporate detailed vector biology and environmental factors, such as temperature-dependent models, can also offer more accurate predictions of mosquito population dynamics and disease risk (Beck-Johnson et al., 2013).

8.3 Integrating climate models with mosquito life cycle studies

Integrating climate models with mosquito life cycle studies is essential for predicting future trends in mosquito populations and disease transmission. Climate-driven models that account for temperature fluctuations and other environmental factors can provide valuable insights into seasonal and interannual patterns of mosquito abundance. For example, models that incorporate diapause and the differential effects of temperature on various life stages can predict changes in mosquito abundance under different climate scenarios (Ewing et al., 2016). Additionally, almost periodic models that consider the loss of synchronicity in mosquito population dynamics due to climate change can offer more accurate predictions and inform targeted mosquito control strategies (Díaz-Marín et al., 2023). By combining climate models with detailed mosquito life cycle data, researchers can better understand the potential impacts of climate change on mosquito-borne diseases and develop more effective control measures (Iwamura et al., 2020).

9 Concluding Remarks

This study comprehensively explores the life cycle dynamics of mosquitoes under various environmental conditions, revealing that temperature and humidity significantly impact mosquito development, survival rates, and population dynamics. While higher temperatures accelerate mosquito development, they can also increase mortality rates. In contrast, moderate humidity levels are beneficial for mosquito survival and activity. Additionally, water quality and habitat types in different environments significantly influence mosquito reproduction and development, with artificial breeding sites in urban areas and natural breeding sites in rural areas each having distinct characteristics. Mosquitoes' adaptation strategies to environmental changes, including genetic, behavioral, and physiological adaptations, demonstrate their high responsiveness to temperature fluctuations and habitat changes. The impact of climate change on mosquito life cycles and distribution, particularly changes in temperature and precipitation patterns, further underscores the importance of studying mosquito ecology and vector-borne disease transmission.

Continued research into the life cycle dynamics and environmental adaptability of mosquitoes is crucial for addressing future disease transmission and public health challenges. By deeply understanding the genetic, behavioral, and physiological adaptation mechanisms of mosquitoes, we can provide scientific evidence for developing more effective control measures. Especially in the context of climate change, studying the long-term effects of temperature and humidity changes on mosquito populations can help predict mosquito population dynamics and disease transmission risks. Furthermore, integrating climate models with mosquito life cycle data can enhance the accuracy of disease early warning systems and inform more effective public health strategies.

Effective management of mosquito populations under varied environmental conditions requires a multifaceted approach. Integrating climate-dependent models with real-time environmental data can enhance the precision of mosquito surveillance and control programs. Public health authorities should prioritize the collection and analysis of microclimatic data to better understand local mosquito dynamics and implement targeted interventions. Moreover, adaptive management strategies that consider the potential impacts of climate change on mosquito habitats and life cycles are essential. This includes the development of innovative vector control technologies and the promotion of community-based initiatives to reduce breeding sites. Ultimately, a comprehensive understanding of the environmental factors influencing mosquito populations will be pivotal in reducing the burden of mosquito-borne diseases and protecting public health in a changing climate.

Acknowledgments

EmtoSci Publisher appreciates the revision comments provided by the two anonymous peer reviewers on the manuscript.

Conflict of Interest Disclosure

Authors affirm that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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